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.In response, funds forreservations were increased and efforts were made to addresslocal problems.After Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president in 1933,he placed John Collier at the head of the BIA.Collier was aman with a deep knowledge of and appreciation for NativeAmericans, and he genuinely wanted to use the BIA to helpthem.Under the direction of its new commissioner, the BIApressed Congress for passage of the Indian Reorganization Act(IRA).When the IRA was passed in 1934, it provided for alimited degree of self-government on federal Indian reservations.Each community was empowered to adopt a constitution,elect a tribal council, and participate in developing localprograms.Although in actual practice local independencewas severely restricted, the IRA at least recognized NativeAmerican rights to land.It also encouraged the continuationof traditional ways of life.After passage of the IRA, according to the act s provisions,a referendum was held in Hopi villages so that people couldexpress either their support for or opposition to acceptingthe act s provisions.The overwhelming majority of the Hopisrefused to participate in the referendum.By staying away fromthe vote, most Hopis showed their disapproval of the entireprocess.But of those who did vote, most favored the IRA.Theact then went into effect: A tribal council was elected in 1935,and a formal constitution was adopted the following year.Even though the IRA was officially accepted, controversiesarose within the Hopi community over the issue of communityleadership.In a continuation of the two divergent attitudes the 64 THE HOPIHopis had earlier taken toward cooperation with the U.S.government, this split in opinion found new expression inresponse to the IRA.One group of Hopis, called the Progressives,supported the system of elected representatives.Another faction,called the Traditionals, wanted to maintain clan chiefs as thelegitimate local leaders.Two systems of leadership thereforecoexist in Hopi villages.During the 1930s, the BIA began a program to reduce theamount of livestock owned by Hopi and Navajo herders.Thestock-reduction policy was a response to the problem of soilerosion on the reservations.Although Collier genuinely wantedto improve conditions for the Hopis and the Navajos, theprogram was poorly designed and unfairly implemented.Members of the affected communities were not consulted beforethe policy was put into effect.The Hopis and the Navajos wereshocked and angered when they were told that they would haveto surrender up to half of their sheep.When they objected to theprogram, government officials told them that they had no powerto change the policies.A serious flaw in the program was that although thegovernment paid owners for their sheep, the market pricefor sheep brought to slaughter was not equal to their realvalue.Most Hopis did not ordinarily sell their sheep for foodbut rather kept them for the wool they produced.If a sheepis sheared every year, its owner keeps receiving an incomefrom the sale of wool.In contrast, if a sheep is sold, moneyis only earned once.By paying herders the market rate, thegovernment did not actually compensate the Hopis and theNavajos for the full potential value of their sheep.The entire experience of stock reduction left a permanentmark on relations between the Hopis and the federal government.It again raised the issue of local control over community lifeand well-being.The Hopis felt that their opinions and interestshad been ignored, and they saw the program as anotherexample of government interference. Adjusting to Change 65John Collier (right), who was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933 byPresident Franklin Delano Roosevelt, was an advocate for fair treatment of NativeAmericans.Although many of Collier s proposals did not win the backing ofCongress, the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was a step in the right direction inthat it called for tribal self-government and the return of individual land allotmentsto tribes.In 1948, the bureau began another policy that proved to beunpopular.The BIA opened the Branch of Relocation; the goalof which was to relocate Native Americans from reservationsto cities throughout the United States.Few jobs were availableon or near most reservations, and the relocation program wasan attempt to alleviate the resultant unemployment.One ofthe stated intentions of the relocation program was to helpIndians obtain jobs in urban centers.The Branch of Relocationsupplied funds for transportation from reservations to citiesand in some cases paid for job training.But once again, theBIA had not asked the Hopis or other Native Americans whatthey wanted. 66 THE HOPIIndians from all reservations were included in the program.The Hopis were encouraged to enroll and relocate to suchwestern cities as Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; andLos Angeles, California.But very few Hopis agreed to relocate.Most preferred to continue farming and raising their sheep orto try to seek jobs in nearby non-Hopi towns.In fact, the relocation program proved to be a dismal failurethroughout the United States.Although it was officially aimedat improving economic conditions for Native Americans, mostIndians who moved to cities found themselves jobless andliving in decaying urban ghettos.The large majority of peoplewho did agree to relocate eventually returned to their reser-vations, finding that they preferred to live on their own landwhere they could find emotional and material support in theirown communities.In 1950, Congress passed the Navajo-Hopi Act, whichallotted a sum of $88 million for improvements on bothreservations.The funds paid for the construction of wells,fences, roads, and flood-control dikes.Although the moneywas put to good use, many traditional leaders continued toobject to government interference in their lives.By the middle of the twentieth century, concern grewamong many Hopis over the issue of loss of their originalterritory [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
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.In response, funds forreservations were increased and efforts were made to addresslocal problems.After Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president in 1933,he placed John Collier at the head of the BIA.Collier was aman with a deep knowledge of and appreciation for NativeAmericans, and he genuinely wanted to use the BIA to helpthem.Under the direction of its new commissioner, the BIApressed Congress for passage of the Indian Reorganization Act(IRA).When the IRA was passed in 1934, it provided for alimited degree of self-government on federal Indian reservations.Each community was empowered to adopt a constitution,elect a tribal council, and participate in developing localprograms.Although in actual practice local independencewas severely restricted, the IRA at least recognized NativeAmerican rights to land.It also encouraged the continuationof traditional ways of life.After passage of the IRA, according to the act s provisions,a referendum was held in Hopi villages so that people couldexpress either their support for or opposition to acceptingthe act s provisions.The overwhelming majority of the Hopisrefused to participate in the referendum.By staying away fromthe vote, most Hopis showed their disapproval of the entireprocess.But of those who did vote, most favored the IRA.Theact then went into effect: A tribal council was elected in 1935,and a formal constitution was adopted the following year.Even though the IRA was officially accepted, controversiesarose within the Hopi community over the issue of communityleadership.In a continuation of the two divergent attitudes the 64 THE HOPIHopis had earlier taken toward cooperation with the U.S.government, this split in opinion found new expression inresponse to the IRA.One group of Hopis, called the Progressives,supported the system of elected representatives.Another faction,called the Traditionals, wanted to maintain clan chiefs as thelegitimate local leaders.Two systems of leadership thereforecoexist in Hopi villages.During the 1930s, the BIA began a program to reduce theamount of livestock owned by Hopi and Navajo herders.Thestock-reduction policy was a response to the problem of soilerosion on the reservations.Although Collier genuinely wantedto improve conditions for the Hopis and the Navajos, theprogram was poorly designed and unfairly implemented.Members of the affected communities were not consulted beforethe policy was put into effect.The Hopis and the Navajos wereshocked and angered when they were told that they would haveto surrender up to half of their sheep.When they objected to theprogram, government officials told them that they had no powerto change the policies.A serious flaw in the program was that although thegovernment paid owners for their sheep, the market pricefor sheep brought to slaughter was not equal to their realvalue.Most Hopis did not ordinarily sell their sheep for foodbut rather kept them for the wool they produced.If a sheepis sheared every year, its owner keeps receiving an incomefrom the sale of wool.In contrast, if a sheep is sold, moneyis only earned once.By paying herders the market rate, thegovernment did not actually compensate the Hopis and theNavajos for the full potential value of their sheep.The entire experience of stock reduction left a permanentmark on relations between the Hopis and the federal government.It again raised the issue of local control over community lifeand well-being.The Hopis felt that their opinions and interestshad been ignored, and they saw the program as anotherexample of government interference. Adjusting to Change 65John Collier (right), who was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933 byPresident Franklin Delano Roosevelt, was an advocate for fair treatment of NativeAmericans.Although many of Collier s proposals did not win the backing ofCongress, the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was a step in the right direction inthat it called for tribal self-government and the return of individual land allotmentsto tribes.In 1948, the bureau began another policy that proved to beunpopular.The BIA opened the Branch of Relocation; the goalof which was to relocate Native Americans from reservationsto cities throughout the United States.Few jobs were availableon or near most reservations, and the relocation program wasan attempt to alleviate the resultant unemployment.One ofthe stated intentions of the relocation program was to helpIndians obtain jobs in urban centers.The Branch of Relocationsupplied funds for transportation from reservations to citiesand in some cases paid for job training.But once again, theBIA had not asked the Hopis or other Native Americans whatthey wanted. 66 THE HOPIIndians from all reservations were included in the program.The Hopis were encouraged to enroll and relocate to suchwestern cities as Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; andLos Angeles, California.But very few Hopis agreed to relocate.Most preferred to continue farming and raising their sheep orto try to seek jobs in nearby non-Hopi towns.In fact, the relocation program proved to be a dismal failurethroughout the United States.Although it was officially aimedat improving economic conditions for Native Americans, mostIndians who moved to cities found themselves jobless andliving in decaying urban ghettos.The large majority of peoplewho did agree to relocate eventually returned to their reser-vations, finding that they preferred to live on their own landwhere they could find emotional and material support in theirown communities.In 1950, Congress passed the Navajo-Hopi Act, whichallotted a sum of $88 million for improvements on bothreservations.The funds paid for the construction of wells,fences, roads, and flood-control dikes.Although the moneywas put to good use, many traditional leaders continued toobject to government interference in their lives.By the middle of the twentieth century, concern grewamong many Hopis over the issue of loss of their originalterritory [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]