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.The firstconstituent of the sentence receives stress in German and is less likely to bereplicated as 'That I mean'; instead, a cleft construction of the type 'That'swhat I mean' often takes the place of the stressed German constituent intranslation into English (Kirkwood, 1969: 96).Through systematic studies concerned with the textual dimensions ofcontrastive problems between languages as revealed through the use oftranslation, Prague School linguists succeeded in unearthing consistentdifferences between European languages.This provided the practisingtranslator with a background against which translation problems might beviewed and options for suitable solutions sought.These options may inturn be analysed from the viewpoint of evaluation of translations, as in themore recent work by Brno-born linguist Jan Firbas.In a study of fourdifferent translations from Russian into Dutch, English, French andGerman of the opening paragraph of Boris Pasternak's Dr Zhivago, theapplication of the concept of FSP allows Firbas to assess the faithfulness ofthe translations in relation to the communicative purpose of the original(Firbas, 1999).The relationship between translation and linguistics may take twodifferent forms: in the case of Nida and Catford it expresses itself in anattempt to formulate a linguistic theory of translation.However, it may alsotake the less ambitious form of just an ongoing interaction between the two,each drawing on the findings of the other whenever this is mutually benefi-cial.For linguistics, such interaction might entail the use of translation as aform of contrastive analysis as in the work by linguists following thePrague School tradition.The gains on the part of translation theorists on theother hand have often been the findings resulting from the research under-taken by linguists engaged in the study of language above the level of theword and the sentence.The study of the factors affecting the overall organisation of the textabove sentence level increasingly attracted the attention of linguists duringthe 1970s and 1980s.While early application of linguistic findings to trans-lation drew its influence from the field of stylistics (Enkvist, 1978), laterimpetus was provided by discourse analysis (Hatim & Mason, 1990).Again,as the focus of the interest of linguists began to centre on text linguistics,translation theorists closely followed in their footsteps, looking for newmodels of description.In a paper delivered at the 1981 conference of the Linguistics and Translation55Association International de Linguistique Appliqu titled 'Translation,interpreting and text linguistics', Albrecht Neubert pointed to the impor-tance of paying close attention to the textual features inherent in the sourcetext.'It is a different text.It is couched in a different world of discourse'(Neubert, 1981: 132).Hence the translator needs to be sensitive to the typeof discourse that target language readers are likely to expect under similarcommunicative circumstances, often revealed through a comparison withparallel texts.Parallel texts form the background texts with which transla-tions often do not compare favourably; as its parallel text in French theBritish Highway Code has for comparison 'le code de la route' and inGerman, 'die Strassenverkehrsordnung' (Neubert, 1981: 135).Following the legacy of the previous century and its scientifically-basedapproach to the study of language, the 1970s-1980s saw a number ofGerman translation theorists apply text linguistics-based theories to trans-lation.A major, early influence, Katharina Rei13' work on text types uses asher starting point Biihler's (1934) three functions of the linguistic sign, theinformative, the expressive and the operative, to which, presciently, anaudio-medial type is added, where verbal sparseness is of the essence.While primarily 'informative' texts such as reports and operating manualsneed to be translated in plain prose with, if necessary, explanations in theform of expansions, a basically 'expressive' text such as a poem or a playrequires a greater degree of identification between translator and origi-nator.In the case of remaining types, operative texts such as those used inadvertising, call for an 'adaptive' translation while the translator of audio-medial texts needs only to supplement what is already expressed byganother medium (Rei 1976; 1977).A Hallidayan approach involving three macro-functions of languageaccounting for content (ideational), the relationship between speaker andaddressee (interpersonal) and the cohesive links necessary for text cohe-sion (textual) also enabled Juliane House to put forward one of the firstmodels for evaluating translation quality, focusing on a retrospectivecomparison of source and target texts of German/English translationsHouse, 1977, 1981).The importance of the function of the translated text is(further emphasised by Hans Vermeer, who views translation as action to'skopos'.which an aim must always be ascribed or, to use the Greek worda translation is inevitably undertakenAccording to Vermeer's skopos theory,for a purpose laid down by a client or the translators themselves, and isalways accompanied, implicitly or explicitly, by a set of specifications as tohow the source text should be translated whether it needs to be translatedfaithfully, paraphrased or completely re-edited (Vermeer, 1983, 1989).Thegrowing demand from industry during the last couple of decades for A Companion to Translation Studies56professional translation is also reflected in the curriculum design of Euro-translational action model putpean translation training programmes.In theforward by Holz-Manttari, highly specialised translation commissionspoint to the need for attention to be paid to the different roles of the partici-pants in the translational action.The translator may require informationwith respect to text type and advice from subject area experts as well asknowledge about the users and ultimate uses of the translated text (Holz-Mdnttdri, 1984).The functionalist approach is further emphasised byChristiane Nord (1988, 1991, 1997), who also points to the importance in aprogramme of translators' training of the 'translation brief', the problemsresulting from the function assigned to the translation and the importanceof close analysis of the source text.Just as the study of language may be extended beyond the level of thesentence to include the overall organisation of the text, it may be widenedeven further to take into account extra-linguistic factors.In the 1970s,research projects began to appear that were concerned with the influence ofsocial variables on language use.In the USA, William Labov (1972b) firstinvestigated the speech patterns of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard,off the coast of New England, then turned his attention to a very differentkind of community [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
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.The firstconstituent of the sentence receives stress in German and is less likely to bereplicated as 'That I mean'; instead, a cleft construction of the type 'That'swhat I mean' often takes the place of the stressed German constituent intranslation into English (Kirkwood, 1969: 96).Through systematic studies concerned with the textual dimensions ofcontrastive problems between languages as revealed through the use oftranslation, Prague School linguists succeeded in unearthing consistentdifferences between European languages.This provided the practisingtranslator with a background against which translation problems might beviewed and options for suitable solutions sought.These options may inturn be analysed from the viewpoint of evaluation of translations, as in themore recent work by Brno-born linguist Jan Firbas.In a study of fourdifferent translations from Russian into Dutch, English, French andGerman of the opening paragraph of Boris Pasternak's Dr Zhivago, theapplication of the concept of FSP allows Firbas to assess the faithfulness ofthe translations in relation to the communicative purpose of the original(Firbas, 1999).The relationship between translation and linguistics may take twodifferent forms: in the case of Nida and Catford it expresses itself in anattempt to formulate a linguistic theory of translation.However, it may alsotake the less ambitious form of just an ongoing interaction between the two,each drawing on the findings of the other whenever this is mutually benefi-cial.For linguistics, such interaction might entail the use of translation as aform of contrastive analysis as in the work by linguists following thePrague School tradition.The gains on the part of translation theorists on theother hand have often been the findings resulting from the research under-taken by linguists engaged in the study of language above the level of theword and the sentence.The study of the factors affecting the overall organisation of the textabove sentence level increasingly attracted the attention of linguists duringthe 1970s and 1980s.While early application of linguistic findings to trans-lation drew its influence from the field of stylistics (Enkvist, 1978), laterimpetus was provided by discourse analysis (Hatim & Mason, 1990).Again,as the focus of the interest of linguists began to centre on text linguistics,translation theorists closely followed in their footsteps, looking for newmodels of description.In a paper delivered at the 1981 conference of the Linguistics and Translation55Association International de Linguistique Appliqu titled 'Translation,interpreting and text linguistics', Albrecht Neubert pointed to the impor-tance of paying close attention to the textual features inherent in the sourcetext.'It is a different text.It is couched in a different world of discourse'(Neubert, 1981: 132).Hence the translator needs to be sensitive to the typeof discourse that target language readers are likely to expect under similarcommunicative circumstances, often revealed through a comparison withparallel texts.Parallel texts form the background texts with which transla-tions often do not compare favourably; as its parallel text in French theBritish Highway Code has for comparison 'le code de la route' and inGerman, 'die Strassenverkehrsordnung' (Neubert, 1981: 135).Following the legacy of the previous century and its scientifically-basedapproach to the study of language, the 1970s-1980s saw a number ofGerman translation theorists apply text linguistics-based theories to trans-lation.A major, early influence, Katharina Rei13' work on text types uses asher starting point Biihler's (1934) three functions of the linguistic sign, theinformative, the expressive and the operative, to which, presciently, anaudio-medial type is added, where verbal sparseness is of the essence.While primarily 'informative' texts such as reports and operating manualsneed to be translated in plain prose with, if necessary, explanations in theform of expansions, a basically 'expressive' text such as a poem or a playrequires a greater degree of identification between translator and origi-nator.In the case of remaining types, operative texts such as those used inadvertising, call for an 'adaptive' translation while the translator of audio-medial texts needs only to supplement what is already expressed byganother medium (Rei 1976; 1977).A Hallidayan approach involving three macro-functions of languageaccounting for content (ideational), the relationship between speaker andaddressee (interpersonal) and the cohesive links necessary for text cohe-sion (textual) also enabled Juliane House to put forward one of the firstmodels for evaluating translation quality, focusing on a retrospectivecomparison of source and target texts of German/English translationsHouse, 1977, 1981).The importance of the function of the translated text is(further emphasised by Hans Vermeer, who views translation as action to'skopos'.which an aim must always be ascribed or, to use the Greek worda translation is inevitably undertakenAccording to Vermeer's skopos theory,for a purpose laid down by a client or the translators themselves, and isalways accompanied, implicitly or explicitly, by a set of specifications as tohow the source text should be translated whether it needs to be translatedfaithfully, paraphrased or completely re-edited (Vermeer, 1983, 1989).Thegrowing demand from industry during the last couple of decades for A Companion to Translation Studies56professional translation is also reflected in the curriculum design of Euro-translational action model putpean translation training programmes.In theforward by Holz-Manttari, highly specialised translation commissionspoint to the need for attention to be paid to the different roles of the partici-pants in the translational action.The translator may require informationwith respect to text type and advice from subject area experts as well asknowledge about the users and ultimate uses of the translated text (Holz-Mdnttdri, 1984).The functionalist approach is further emphasised byChristiane Nord (1988, 1991, 1997), who also points to the importance in aprogramme of translators' training of the 'translation brief', the problemsresulting from the function assigned to the translation and the importanceof close analysis of the source text.Just as the study of language may be extended beyond the level of thesentence to include the overall organisation of the text, it may be widenedeven further to take into account extra-linguistic factors.In the 1970s,research projects began to appear that were concerned with the influence ofsocial variables on language use.In the USA, William Labov (1972b) firstinvestigated the speech patterns of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard,off the coast of New England, then turned his attention to a very differentkind of community [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]